Samuwar, Kimiyya

Halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka. Redox halayen: Misalan

Ba tare da samar da makamashi ba zai iya zama guda rayayyen taliki. Bayan duk, kowane sinadaran dauki, duk wani tsari bukatar da kasancewar. Duk wani mutumin da zai iya samun sauƙin fahimtar da shi da kuma jin shi. Idan dukan yini ci abinci, sa'an nan ta yamma, da kuma watakila a baya, ta ƙara gajiya cututtuka fara, wani rauni, ƙarfin ƙwarai rage.

To, ta yaya hanya daban-daban kwayoyin sun saba da samar da makamashi? Inda ya fito da kuma abin da matakai faruwa a lokaci guda a cikin keji? Ka yi kokarin fahimtar wannan labarin.

Samun makamashi kwayoyin

Kõwane hanyar ba da makamashi da ake cinyewa, da akai ko da yaushe karya OVR (redox halayen). Misalai ne daban-daban. Jadawalin photosynthesis, wanda yana da za'ayi na kore shuke-shuke da wasu kwayoyin cuta - shi ne ma da OVR. Babu shakka, da tsari zai zama daban-daban dangane da abin da irin wata halitta mai rai ake nufi.

Saboda haka, dukan dabbobi - shi heterotrophs. Ina nufin irin kwayoyin da ba su iya shi kadai ta samar a cikin kanta a shirye domin kara gudanar da mahadi da su tsakiyan nonon saki makamashi da sunadarai shaidu.

Shuke-shuke, a daya hannun, su ne mafi m samar da kwayoyin halitta a wannan duniya tamu. Sun gudanar da wani hadadden da muhimmanci tsari kira photosynthesis, wanda shi ne samuwar glucose daga ruwa, carbon dioxide a ƙarƙashin rinjayar musamman abubuwa - chlorophyll. A da-samfurin ne oxygen, wanda shi ne tushen rayuwa ga dukan aerobic halittu masu rai.

Redox halayen, misalai na wanda aka kwatanta a cikin tsari:

  • 6CO 2 + 6H 2 Ya = chlorophyll = C 6 H 10 Yã 6 + 6O 2;

ko

  • carbon dioxide + hydrogen oxide ƙarƙashin rinjayar da pigment chlorophyll (enzyme dauki) + = monosaccharide free kwayoyin oxygen.

Har ila yau, akwai kuma wakilan da biomass na duniya da suka sami damar amfani da makamashi da sunadarai shaidu na inorganic mahadi. Suna da ake kira chemotroph. Wadannan sun hada da yawa iri kwayoyin. Alal misali, microorganisms ne hydrogen, oxidizing wani substrate kwayoyin a cikin ƙasa. A tsari na faruwa bisa ga dabara: 2h 2 0 2 = 2h 2 0.

A tarihin ci gaban ilimi game da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka

A tsari cewa shi ne tushen samar da makamashi, an san yau. Wannan nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka. Biochemistry a matsayin cikakken nazari da cikakken bayani kuma sunadaran da mataki matakai cewa riddles kusan tafi. Duk da haka, shi ya kasance ba ko da yaushe.

A farko ambaci cewa a cikin halittu masu rai jurewa hadaddun rikirkida, wanda suke da yanayi na sinadaran halayen, akwai wajen a cikin XVIII karni. Sai a wannan lokaci, Antuan Lavuaze, sanannen Faransa sunadarai, ya juya, ya da hankali ga hanya kama da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka da kuma konewa. Ya bi abar hanya a lokacin da numfashi oxygen tunawa da kuma ƙarasa da cewa faruwa a cikin jikin hadawan abu da iskar shaka matakai, amma hankali fiye da waje a lokacin konewa na daban-daban abubuwa. Wato, da oxidizer - oxygen kwayoyin - Ana mayar da martani tare da gudanar da mahadi, kuma musamman, tare da hydrogen da carbon daga gare su, da kuma cikakken hira, tare da bazuwar daga cikin mahadi.

Duk da haka, ko da yake wannan zato ne da gaske quite real, shi ya kasance take hana abubuwa da yawa. Ga misali:

  • lokaci matakai ne irin wannan, da kuma yanayi na kwarara ya kamata zama m, amma hadawan abu da iskar shaka fitowa a wata low yanayin jiki.
  • mataki ne tare da saki gagarumin yawa na zafi da makamashi da kuma harshen samuwar faruwa.
  • a halittu masu rai babu kasa da 75-80% na ruwa, amma shi ba ya hana "kona" na gina jiki a gare su.

Don amsa dukkan wadannan tambayoyi da kuma fahimtar abin da gaske ne da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka, da ake bukata fiye da shekara guda.

Akwai daban-daban theories wanda ya nuna muhimmancin aiwatar da oxygen da kuma hydrogen. The fi na kowa, kuma mafi nasara kasance:

  • Bach ka'idar, kira peroxide.
  • Palladin ka'idar, dangane da irin wannan ra'ayi kamar yadda "chromogens".

Daga baya akwai masana kimiyya da dama a Rasha da kuma sauran kasashe na duniya, wanda a hankali ya sa tarawa da kuma canje-canje ga wannan tambaya na abin da yake da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka. Biochemistry na yau, saboda aikinsu, zai iya gaya maka game da kowane na da dauki tsari. Daga cikin shahararrun sunayen a wannan filin ne da wadannan:

  • Mitchell.
  • SV Severin.
  • Warburg.
  • VA Belitser.
  • Lehninger.
  • VP Skulachev.
  • Krebs.
  • Green.
  • V. A. Engelgardt.
  • Kaylin da sauransu.

Nau'in na nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka

Biyu na asali iri za a iya bambanta na aiwatar da ya faru a karkashin yanayi daban-daban. Saboda haka, ya fi na kowa a cikin da yawa jinsunan kwayoyin da fungi hanyar maida sakamakon abinci - da anaerobic. Wannan nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka, wanda yana da za'ayi ba tare da oxygen da kuma ba tare da ya da hannu a duk wani nau'i. Irin wannan yanayi da ake halitta a wuraren da babu iska damar: boye, rubabben substrata, silts, clays, swamps kuma ko da a sarari.

Wannan irin hadawan abu da iskar shaka yana da wani sunan - glycolysis. Shi ne kuma daya daga cikin matakai a mafi rikitarwa, kuma lokaci-cinyewa, amma energetically arziki tsari - tana mayar da aerobic ko nama numfasawa. Wannan shi ne karo na biyu da irin tsari. Yana auku a duk aerobic halittu masu rai-heterotrophs, wanda amfani da oxygen for numfasawa.

Saboda haka, wadannan iri nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka.

  1. Glycolysis, da anaerobic hanya. Yana ba ya bukatar gaban oxygen da kuma ƙare da daban-daban siffofin fermentation.
  2. Nama numfasawa (oxidative phosphorylation), ko aerobic irin. Yana bukatar wajibi gaban kwayoyin oxygen.

Actors

Mu yanzu la'akari da kansu kai-tsaye siffofi da cewa yana dauke da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka. Ƙayyade asali mahadi da su abbreviations, wanda zai ci gaba da amfani da shi.

  1. Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) - sandaro na oxalic acid da acetic acid, coenzyme, wanda aka kafa a mataki na farko na tricarboxylic acid sake zagayowar.
  2. Krebs sake zagayowar (citric acid sake zagayowar, tricarboxylic acid) - da dama a jere hadaddun redox rikirkida shafe a saki makamashi, hydrogen raguwa, da samuwar muhimmanci low kwayoyin nauyi kayayyakin. Shi ne babban mahada tsara da kuma anabolism.
  3. Nad da nad * H - dehydrogenase enzyme, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide tsaye. Na biyu dabara - wani kwayoyin da wani a haɗe hydrogen. NADP - nikotinamidadenindinukletid phosphate.
  4. Fad da kuma fad * H - flavin adenine dinucleotide - coenzyme dehydrogenase.
  5. ATP - adenosine triphosphate.
  6. PVK - pyruvic acid ko pyruvate.
  7. Succinate ko succinic acid, H 3 PO 4 - phosphoric acid.
  8. GTP - guanosine triphosphate, wani aji na purine nucleotides.
  9. Da dai sauransu - da electron kai sarkar.
  10. Enzymes tsari: peroxidase, oxygenase, cytochrome oxidase, flavin dehydrogenase, daban-daban coenzymes da sauran mahadi.

Duk wadannan mahadi aka kai tsaye da hannu a aiwatar da hadawan abu da iskar shaka da ya auku a cikin kyallen takarda (Kwayoyin) na rayayyun kwayoyin halitta.

A mataki na nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka: Table

mataki Matakai da darajar
glycolysis Jigon da tsari da yake a cikin anoxic narkewa monosaccharides wanda ya biyo baya kan aiwatar da cell numfasawa ya kuma bi da a saki makamashi, daidai da biyu kwayoyin na ATP. Pyruvate ne ma samar. Wannan shi ne na farko mataki don wani rai gabar heterotrophs. The darajar a samuwar STC, wacce ake kawota ga mitochondrial cristae da wani substrate for nama oxygen da hadawan abu da iskar shaka. A anaerobic glycolysis faruwa bayan fermentation tafiyar matakai iri-iri.
A hadawan abu da iskar shaka na pyruvate Wannan tsari ne ya maida STC kafa a lokacin glycolysis, to acetyl-CoA. Yana yana da za'ayi tare da taimakon wani na musamman enzyme hadaddun pyruvate dehydrogenase. Result - cetyl-CoA kwayoyin, wanda shiga cikin da Krebs sake zagayowar. A wannan tsari aka yi don mayar da nad NADH. Place sarrafawa - crista mitochondria.
A auka daga cikin beta-m acid Wannan tsari ne da za'ayi a cikin layi daya da suka gabata Christie mitochondria. Its ainihi shi ne maimaita duk da m acid don acetyl-CoA da kuma sanya shi a cikin citric acid sake zagayowar. Duk da yake ma murmurewa NADH.
Krebs sake zagayowar

Ya fara da hira da acetyl-CoA a citric acid, wanda shigarsu kara canje. Daya daga cikin muhimman matakai wanda ya hada da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka. Wannan acid shigarsu:

  • dehydrogenation.
  • decarboxylation.
  • farfadowa.

Kowane tsari aka yi sau da yawa. Result: GTP, carbon dioxide, rage form NADH da FADH 2. Kamar wancan enzymes biooxidation yardar kaina located in mitochondrial matrix barbashi.

oxidative phosphorylation

Wannan shi ne matakin karshe a hira da mahadi eukaryotic kwayoyin. Kamar wancan akwai wani canji na ADP cikin ATP. A samar da makamashi da ake bukata domin wannan aka dauka a lokacin da hadawan abu da iskar shaka daga cikin kwayoyin na NADH da FADH 2 da aka kafa a baya, saukarwa. By m mi} a da dai sauransu, kuma da ragewa makamashi auku a ƙarshe na makamashi-m ATP sadarwa.

Wadannan su ne duk matakai da bi da nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka shafe oxygen. Babu shakka, sũ, ba su bayyana cikakke, amma kawai a cikin yanayi, kamar yadda for cikakken bayanin bukatar wani dukan babi na littafin. Duk da biochemical matakai na rayayyun kwayoyin halitta ne musamman Multi-faceted da hadaddun.

Redox dauki tsari

Redox halayen, misalai na wanda ake kwatanta substrate hadawan abu da iskar shaka matakai bayyana a sama su ne kamar haka.

  1. Glycolysis: monosaccharide (glucose) + 2NAD + = 2ADF 2PVK 2ATF + 4H + + O 2 + 2h + NADH.
  2. Hadawan abu da iskar shaka na pyruvate: enzyme = STC + carbon dioxide + acetaldehyde. Sa'an nan da wadannan mataki: Acetaldehyde + coenzyme A = acetyl-CoA.
  3. A jam'i na bi da bi-canje na citric acid a cikin Krebs sake zagayowar.

Wadannan redox halayen exemplified sama, daidai da jigon da matakai ne kawai a general sharuddan. An sani cewa mahadi a tambaya da lãbãri a wani macromolecular ko ciwon manyan carbon kwarangwal, don haka ya nuna duk da cikakken dabara ne kawai ba zai yiwu.

A samar da makamashi fitarwa na nama numfasawa

A cewar sama da bayanin a fili yake cewa yin lissafi da duka fitarwa na duk makamashi na hadawan abu da iskar shaka mai sauƙi ne.

  1. Biyu kwayoyin na ATP ba glycolysis.
  2. Hadawan abu da iskar shaka na pyruvate 12 ATP kwayoyin.
  3. 22 kwayoyin lissafi ga tricarboxylic acid sake zagayowar.

Subtotal: total aerobic nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka ta hanyar bada makamashi amfanin ƙasa daidai da 36 kwayoyin na ATP. Ma'ana biooxidation bayyananne. Yana da wannan makamashi amfani da rayayyun kwayoyin halitta da rayuwa da kuma aiki, kazalika da ji dimi jikinsa, motsi da kuma sauran abubuwa da suke wajibi.

Substrate anaerobic hadawan abu da iskar shaka

Nau'i na biyu na nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka - da anaerobic. Wannan shi ne wanda aka za'ayi a duk, amma wanda ya tsaya wasu iri kwayoyin. Yana glycolysis, kuma shi ne a nan cewa bambance-bambance ne a fili gani a nan gaba hira da abubuwa tsakanin aerobic da anaerobic.

Halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka mataki na wannan hanyar da yawa.

  1. Glycolysis, watau hadawan abu da iskar shaka na glucose kwayoyin zuwa pyruvate.
  2. Fermentation, abu don farfadowa daga ATP.

Fermentation iya zama daban-daban, dangane da kwayoyin, ta aiwatar.

lactic fermentation

Za'ayi da lactic acid kwayoyin cuta da kuma wasu fungi. A ainihi shi ne mayar da PVC zuwa lactic acid. Wannan tsari da ake amfani a masana'antu don samar da:

  • kiwo kayayyakin.
  • pickled kayan lambu da 'ya'yan itãce;
  • silage ga dabbobi.

Wannan irin fermentation ne daya daga cikin mafi amfani a mutum bukatun.

giya fermentation

Known mutane daga mafi zamanin da. Jigon da tsari ne don maida STC cikin biyu kwayoyin na ethanol da biyu carbon dioxide. Ta hanyar wannan samfurin fita, irin wannan fermentation amfani da su nuna:

  • burodi.
  • ruwan inabi.
  • giya.
  • confectionery da sauran abubuwa.

Wani sashe da ya naman kaza yisti da kwayan kwayoyin.

butyric acid fermentation

Isar da kyar takamaiman irin fermentation. Dauki kwayoyin cuta na HALITTAR Clostridium. Jigon kunshi a hira da pyruvate cikin butyric acid, imparting abinci kamshi da kuma rancid dandano.

Saboda haka biooxidation dauki faruwa a kan wannan hanya, an kusan amfani da masana'antu. Duk da haka, wadannan kwayoyin cuta ne kai-seeded abinci da wata cũta, ragewan su quality.

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