Tarurruka: menene ma'anar, matsalolin da manufofin kimiyya

A karshen XlX farkon karni na 20, kimiyya ta tashi. Kwafin "Origin of Species" Darwin, da aka rubuta a 1859, an sayar dashi a cikin kwanakin, kuma jayayya game da hanyoyi na juyin halitta da kuma yiwuwar yin tasiri da shi ba ya rabu da minti daya. Shekaru da dama, masana kimiyya sun binciki tsarin juyin halitta, da yawa daga cikin hanyoyi sun bayyana a cikin ilmin halitta, wasu daga cikinsu sun nuna tasirin tasiri akan tsarin juyin halitta.

Eugenics - menene?

A cikin tarihinsa, 'yan adam sun yi amfani da zaɓi don ƙara yawan amfanin gona da yawancin dabbobi. Saboda haka, tarihin maganganu yana da asalinta a cikin sha'awar mutum don kara yawan karuwar yawan dabbobi banda dabbobi kawai.

Bayanin tsararraki game da tsarin kimiyya a karni na XlX bai wanzu ba, sabili da haka Ikilisiya, wadda ta soki duk wani ƙoƙarin shiga tsakani a cikin tsari na halittar Allah, ya ɗauki matsayin babban maƙasudin da kuma tsangwama ga ingantaccen jinsin mutum.

Saboda haka, ra'ayin tsararraki shi ne tabbatar da nauyin jinsin mutum ta hanyar zaɓin da aka zaba, yin amfani da iko a kan haihuwa da kungiyoyin aure.

Dangane da kuma dubban suna

A cikin shekarun farko na karni na 20, ya sami irin wannan shahararrun cewa wasu jihohi sun fara tunanin yin amfani da kayan aikin da suke bayarwa. Saboda haka haɗin kimiyya na Nazi na Jamus ya faru. Yana da aka karkashin Nazi gwamnatin sun samu mafi tsoro ne yaduwar matakan kamar tilasta sterilization gwaje-gwajen a adam da kuma lalata dukkan kungiyoyin gane da gwamnatin ke so.

Duk da haka, ana amfani da dokokin eugenic fiye da Nazi Jamus. Alal misali, a Amurka, a wasu jihohi, an ba masu talauci da mutanen da ke da ƙananan ƙwaƙwalwar Idin da aka biya don biyan kuɗi. An ɗauka cewa mutanen da ke da kyawawan halaye na iya cinye jinsin ta hanyar gaskiyar haihuwar yara.

Da farko, eugenics - da kimiyya da karatu da wucin gadi selection, babban abu wanda yake shi ne mutumin. Akwai hanyoyi guda biyu don sarrafa wannan zaɓi: abin da ake kira hagenics mai kyau yana maida hankali ne kan yin aure, wanda zai haifar da haihuwar yara tare da shahararru; Magungunan cututtuka suna dogara ne akan rashin haihuwa na yara tare da lahani na ci gaban ko siffofin da ba'a so a cikin al'umma. Tare da ci gaba da fasahar likita a kimiyya a cikin arsenal of eugenics, akwai hanyoyi irin na haihuwa a matsayin gwajin kwayoyin gwaje-gwaje da kuma samfurori na duban dan tayi.

Komawa da baya

Mene ne ka'idodin eugenic ya zama cikakke idan kun dubi matsalar nan da nan. Da farko, yana da muhimmanci don fahimtar ma'anar kalmar kanta. An fassara shi daga kalmar Hellenanci kamar "nobleborn". Ta haka ne aka haifi rukunin eugenics. Mene ne zaɓi na wucin gadi, ya zama a fili a 1883, lokacin da masana kimiyya F. Galton ya wallafa aikinsa na ainihi "Nazarin iyawar ɗan adam da ci gaba."

Babban goyon bayan masanan kimiyya sune akidar kwayoyin kayyade. Dalilin koyarwa na Galton shine ba a haɓaka ko ilimi ba zai tasiri tasirin hali ba, amma jagorancin abu ne da ke takawa, wanda ya kayyade, tsakanin sauran abubuwa, halin zamantakewa.

Tare da wallafa wannan littafi ya fara cin nasara mai nasara a cikin jami'o'in Turai. Sabuwar kimiyya ta sami wurinsa a cikin ilimin kimiyya.

Ilimin kwayoyin halitta a matsayin kimiyya. Shirye-shiryen Baya

A 1907, an kirkiro Galton Society a Birtaniya, inda suka yi aiki a kan cigaban kayan kimiyya da bincike don kayan aiki don aikace-aikace a aikace. A Amurka, irin wannan al'umma ya bayyana a shekara ta 1921 kuma an kira shi Amurka Eugenic Society.

Tarihin maganganu ya danganta da ra'ayin Darwiniyancin zamantakewa, wanda ya dogara ne akan gaskiyar cewa wasu takardu da dukiyoyi, da mutanen da ke da alamun anthropology, ya cancanci ci gaba da irin su.

Ka'idojin maganganu na dogara akan gaskiyar cewa ba a haife mutum ba daidai, amma mafi cancanta yana da iko ya kula da tsarin juyin halittar mutum, ya raguwa cikin tsarin haihuwa. Saboda haka, eugenics - da kimiyya da karatu da mutum selection.

Kisanci na zamani

Duk da matakan nasara na sabuwar kimiyya ta hanyar jami'o'i da ofisoshin gwamnati, ba duk masu ilimi sun goyan bayan hanyoyin ba. Masu adawa da kwarewar hanyoyi masu tsauraran ra'ayi sune marubuci Chesterton, masanin ilimin zamantakewa na Amurka Lester Ward, da masanin ilimin halitta Fischer da Haldane, wadanda suka nuna shakku cewa cin hanci da rashawa "zai iya haifar da lalacewar dabi'un da ba a so ba daga mutane.

Ƙungiyar mafi rinjaye da iko na abokan hamayyar daskararrun tilastawa da kuma zaɓi na wucin gadi sun kunshi wakilan kungiyoyin addinai. Duk da cewa da farko wasu 'yan addini sun yi sha'awar sabuwar kimiyya da sha'awa, bayan 1930 da goyon baya ya tsaya. Tun da aka yi amfani da dokokin eugenic Paparoma Pius Xl, wanda ya bayyana a sarari cewa hukumomi ba su da ikon jefa jikin su.

Nazism da kuma rage girman bincike

Matsaloli na labaran da suka shafi kimiyya kamar yadda kimiyya ta fara a cikin shekarun 1930, lokacin da mai nazarin halittu na Nazi Ernst Rudin ya yi amfani da ita don tabbatar da laifuffuka na uku na Reich. A wannan lokacin ya riga ya fahimci yadda zabin yanayi da eugenics ke aiki. Mene ne magani na Nazi zai bayyana a ɗan lokaci, amma wannan haɗin za ta lalace da sunan labarun kimiyya.

Ya zuwa ƙarshen yakin duniya na biyu, an ƙaddamar da labarun farillar. Misali mai ban mamaki ga juyin halitta ra'ayoyin akan hanyoyin da za a iya amfani da ita shine tarihin Herbert Wells, wanda, daga goyon bayan da aka tilasta yin tilasta yin tilasta yin aiki, ya juya a cikin wani dan wasa na 'yancin ɗan adam na shekaru talatin. Ya hada da ya yi jayayya cewa babu wanda ya cancanci mutunta mutum, komai yadda cutar yake da tsanani, amma, akasin haka, dole ne jama'a su kula da shi. Amma, duk da tsayayyar wasu 'yan jama'a, a Sweden, alal misali, ana aiwatar da simintin gyare-gyare na "karami" har zuwa 1976.

Tarurrukan sha'awa

Bayan da ya nuna laifuffuka na Nazi Jamus, wanda aka yi ta nazarin binciken ilimin lissafi, ilimin kimiyya ya zama kamar yadda aka lalata. Duk da haka, bayan dogon lokaci, sha'awar gwaje-gwajen sun sake dawowa kuma binciken da suka shafi ilimin kwayoyin halitta ya sake farfadowa, amma riga ya kasance a matsayin nau'i na mutunci.

{Asar Amirka ta zama ginshiƙan sabuwar juyin halitta na eugenic, inda akwai adadin bincike na bincike-da-gidanka da ke da kwarewa a gine-ginen, cloning da diagnostics, wanda ke da matsayi na musamman a cikin wannan hanyar kimiyya. Don haka ra'ayoyin maganganu sun sami ci gaba a aikin injiniya.

A shekara ta 2003, Tanya Simoncelli, mataimakin darektan sinadarin sinadarai a gwamnatin Amurka, ya bayyana cewa fitowar kwayoyin halitta na farko sun buɗe sabon yanayi na maganganu, wanda ba kamar Nazi ba, ya kamata ya zama baftisma, amma ya amsa ga bukatar talakawa.

Gyara koyarwa

Birtaniya juyin halitta Richard Dawkins ya ce a cikin wata jarida labarin a 2006 cewa eugenics - da kimiyya na nan gaba. Har ila yau, ya bayyana cewa, saboda shugabannin Nazi sun yi amfani da kimiyya, don amfanin kansu, to, yana da inuwa wanda ya hana gudanar da binciken bincike a cikin wannan filin, har tsawon shekarun da suka gabata.

Mai binciken ya kara da cewa, a tunaninsa, irin wannan tsarin ya bambanta kadan daga zaɓin aikin gona. Tabbas, a cikin hujjar da aka saba da shi, masanin kimiyya ya dogara ne akan gaskiyar cewa tun da na uku Rikicin kimiyyar kimiyya ba ta tsaya ba kuma za ta iya amsa tambayoyin da yawa da kuma taimakawa wajen samun mafita a cikin yanayi masu rikitarwa.

Duk da haka, tsarin Dawkins ya bambanta da muhimmanci daga magabatansa. Ya ba da shawarar da zai iya haifar da sakamakon haifuwa da kuma shiga cikin zaɓi na wucin gadi, amma ya nace cewa maganganu zasu taimaka wa mutum ya koyi game da kansa. Alal misali, bayan wucewar gwaje-gwajen kwayoyin, iyaye ba za su ɓata lokacin koyar da yaro a kiɗa ba idan gwaje-gwajen ba su nuna damar iyawa ba. Ana tsammanin irin waɗannan gwaje-gwaje zai taimaka wajen inganta ci gaba a wasanni idan mutane sun san kwarewarsu da rashin ƙarfi. A cewar Dawkins, jinsin halittu da farfadowa na iya zama mafita ga matsaloli masu yawa na zamani na zamani.

Mene ne bambanci ba, shi yayi tuna da International Bioethics kwamitin, wanda mambobin yi imani da cewa irin wannan fuskanta bude kofa ga nuna bambanci da kuma stigmatization, kuma kawas da shakka a kan ra'ayin duniya adam daidaici.

Duk da cewa mahimmanci na yau da kullum suna da'awar kwatanta da al'amuran karni na ashirin, ta yin amfani da kalmomi "jinsin haifuwa" da kuma "zaɓi na amfrayo", a gaskiya duk waɗannan nazarin suna cikin ɓangaren ƙwayar mutum.

Ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin kiwon lafiya mafiya yawan yau - zancewa na daukar ciki - kuma za'a iya la'akari da shi azaman tsari na aiwatar da tsarin kulawa na eugenic. Daga likita, irin wannan zance zai iya hana haihuwar yaron da ke da mummunar cututtuka da kuma cututtuka.

Sabon zamani: matsaloli tare da inganci

A 1915, Thomas Hunt Morgan ya fara bayanin matsalolin da aka tsara a cikin hanyar da aka samu a cikin hanyoyin da suka faru, wadanda suka yi imani da cewa ba za'a iya gadon halaye na mutum ba, misali, ya yi shakkar cewa za a iya yaduwa daga iyaye zuwa yara, Wannan gado yana faruwa a hanyar zamantakewa ta hanyar ilimi, kuma ba ta hanyar jinsi ba.

Bugu da ƙari, ya ambata sakamakon sakamakon kwari, wanda ya nuna cewa abubuwa masu ban sha'awa - irin su karin nau'i na idanu ko takalma - ya bayyana a cikin Drosophila ba kawai saboda gado ba, amma kuma sakamakon maye gurbi.

Duk da haka, a yau ilimin kimiyya ya dogara ne akan fasahar da aka ci gaba. Alal misali, gwaje-gwajen da ma'aurata ke wucewa kafin haifa yaro zai iya ƙayyade ko akwai hadarin samun ciwon yaro da lalacewar kwayoyin kuma, bisa ga wannan, ya ƙi haihuwa a irin wannan hali. Amma ko da wannan gwaji ta fasaha ba za a iya cewa yana bada kariya daga 100% daga kuskure: akwai lokuta idan ma'aurata suka yanke shawara su haifi jariri duk da sakamakon binciken gwaji wanda ya haifar da yara lafiya.

Asarar bambancin kwayoyin

Masanan a cikin jinsin halittu da masana juyin halitta sunyi sautin kararrawa sabili da sha'awar wuce gona da iri ga manufofin zaɓin za su iya haifar da raguwa ga yawancin mutane, kamar yadda yawancin yankunan da ke tsibirin ƙasƙantar da kansu sun lalata.

Edward Miller ya nace cewa kowane ƙarni ya kamata a ba da zarafi don yin ƙananan gudummawar ga cigaban juyin halitta na jinsin kuma ya nuna cewa ko da abubuwa masu ban sha'awa da zasu iya zama mabanin mu a ƙarshe sune mahimmanci ga bunkasa halittu.

Harkokin adawa ga farfadowa

Yawancin abokan hamayyar maganganu sun nuna cewa, duk da kyakkyawar manufar masu bincike na iya zama, a cikin dogon lokaci duk wannan zai haifar da ayyukan da ya saba wa ka'idar. Don irin waɗannan ayyuka masu adawa da maganganu suna nufin komawa ga tilasta wajabtawa, nuna bambancin jinsi, rarrabewa, kuma, yiwuwar, kisan gilla.

A cikin labarinsa na farko game da juyin halitta na Laurie, Andrews ya yi ikirarin cewa cin zarafi da damar da za ta tsoma baki a cikin juyin halitta zai haifar da bayyanar da ake kira posthuman, wanda zai iya bambanta da sabbin halaye na yau da kullum. Bugu da ƙari kuma, ya ba da shawara kada ta tsoma baki tare da irin matakan da suka dace a matsayin tsufa da kuma rai, wanda kawai yake da sha'awar farfadowa.

Menene rayuwar mutum? Menene ma'anarta kuma mutum zai iya daukar nauyin mahalicci? Mutane da yawa masana kan bioethics suna tambayar waɗannan tambayoyi. Akwai amsoshin da yawa a wannan lokaci, amma dukansu ba su da tabbas, wanda ke nufin cewa fiye da tsara daya na masana ilimin halitta, ilmantarwa, masana falsafa da masu ilimin tauhidi zasuyi gwagwarmaya don magance matsalolinsu. Matsaloli na maganganu sun cancanci a biya su mafi kusa.