Daskararru: Properties, tsari da yawa da misalai

M kira irin wannan abubuwa da suke iya ulla wannan jiki da kuma da girma. Na taya da gas, suna bambanta da su siffar. A daskararru riƙe da siffar jiki saboda gaskiyar cewa su barbashi ba su iya matsawa da yardar kaina. Suka sãɓã wa jũna a cikin su yawa, ductility, lantarki watsin da kuma launi. Su ma suna da sauran kaddarorin. Alal misali, mafi yawan wadannan abubuwa suna narke a lokacin dumama, nemowa da ruwa tara jihar. Wasu daga cikin su a lokacin da mai tsanani nan da nan gasified (sublimed). Amma akwai kuma wadanda cewa karya saukar zuwa cikin wasu abubuwa.

Iri daskararru

All daskararru ya kasu kashi biyu kungiyoyin.

1. Amorphous, a cikin abin da mutum barbashi an shirya da ka. A wasu kalmomin, ba su da wata hujja (musamman) tsarin. Wadannan daskararru za a iya narke a cikin wani wajabta zazzabi tazara. Mafi na kowa daga wadannan sun hada da gilashi da kuma guduro.
2. Crystal, wanda bi da bi aka subdivided cikin 4 iri: atomic, kwayoyin, ionic, ƙarfe. A barbashi an located kawai a wani takamaiman juna, wato a cikin crystalline raga. Its lissafi a daban-daban abubuwa iya bambanta ƙwarai.

Crystalline daskararru ĩkon tasarrufi a amorphous a cikin lambobin.

Iri crystalline daskararru

A kusan duk m abubuwa da crystalline tsari. Suka sãɓã wa jũna a cikin tsarin. A ta crystalline raga nodes dauke da daban-daban barbashi da kuma sunadarai. Yana yana daidai da su, kuma sun samu sunayensu. Kowane irin na musamman Properties for shi:

• A atomic crystal raga m barbashi nasaba da wani covalent bond. An bambanta da da ƙarfi. Saboda wannan, irin abubuwa suna da wani babban narkewa batu da kuma tafasar. Wannan irin hada ma'adini da lu'u-lu'u.
• A crystal raga daga cikin kwayoyin bond tsakanin barbashi ne halin da rauni. Abubuwa na irin wannan ne halin da sauƙi na narkewa da kuma tafasar. Suna halin volatility, saboda wanda da wasu wari. Wadannan daskararru ne kankara, sugar. Motion na kwayoyin a daskararru na da irin wannan halin su aiki.
• A ionic crystal raga a cikin nodes Alternate Game da barbashi cajin gaskiya ma da barnatar. Suna gudanar da electrostatic janye. Wannan raga irin wanzu a alkalis, salts, asali oxides. Mutane da yawa abubuwa na irin wannan ne readily mai narkewa a cikin ruwa. Saboda quite wani karfi bond tsakanin ions ne tsaurin. Kusan dukkan su suna odorless, tun da sun an halin ba volatility. Abubuwa da ionic raga iya gudanar da wutar lantarki a halin yanzu, kamar yadda a cikin abun da ke ciki ba free electrons. A misali na m ion - gishiri. Irin wannan crystal raga ba shi gaggautsa. Wannan shi ne saboda gaskiyar cewa wani na miƙa iya haifar da ion m sojojin.
• A ƙarfe crystal raga kawai sunadarai ions ne ba a cikin nodes, lallai cajin. Tsakanin su akwai free electrons ta hanyar abin da ya wuce m thermal da lantarki da makamashi. Wannan shi ne dalilin da ya sa wani karafa daban-daban alama kamar watsin.

Janar Concepts m

Daskararru da abubuwa - yana da kusan daidai da wancan. Wadannan sharuddan koma ga daya daga cikin 4 jihohin tari. Daskararru da barga tsari da kuma hali na thermal motsi na atoms. A karshen sa kananan oscillations kusa da ma'auni matsayi. Branch of kimiyya tafiyad da nazarin abun da ke ciki da kuma ciki tsari, kira a matsayin m-jihar kimiyyar lissafi. Akwai sauran muhimmanci yankunan na ilimi da hannu a cikin irin wannan abubuwa. Canza siffar da waje tsoma da kuma motsi kira makanikai da deformable jikinsu.

Saboda da daban-daban Properties na daskararru, suka yi an yi amfani da daban-daban fasaha na'urorin halitta ta mutum. Mafi sau da yawa da tushen su yi amfani da su ne Properties kamar taurin, ƙarar, taro, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness. Kimiyyar zamani za a iya amfani da sauran halaye na daskararru wanda za a iya gano kawai a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.

Mene ne crystal

Lu'ulu'u - wani m jiki sanya shi a cikin wani tsari barbashi. Kowane sinadaran na da tsarin. Its kwayoyin halitta ya samar da wata uku-dimensionally lokaci-lokaci stacking kira raga. M abubuwa da daban-daban tsarin fasali. M crystalline jihar yana dauke barga, saboda shi yana da mafi ƙarancin adadin m makamashi.

Mafiya yawa m kayan (na halitta) kunshi babban adadin da ka daidaitacce mutum hatsi (crystallites). Irin wannan abubuwa suna kira polycrystalline. Wadannan sun hada da fasaha gami da karafa, kazalika da yawa na kankara. Monocrystalline kira halitta ko roba guda lu'ulu'u.

A mafi irin wannan m jikuna an kafa daga jihar ruwa lokaci, sallama zuwa narke ko bayani. Wani lokaci, su ake samu daga wani gaseous jihar. Wannan tsari shine ake kira crystallization. Godiya ga kimiyya da ci gaban fasaha na namo hanya (kira) na daban-daban abubuwa samar da wani masana'antu sikelin. Mafi yawa daga cikin lu'ulu'u da na halitta da siffar wani yau da kullum polyhedron. Da girmansu bambanta. Alal misali, na halitta ma'adini (dutse crystal) zai iya auna har zuwa daruruwan kilo, kuma Diamonds - har zuwa dama grams.

A amorphous daskararru, sunadaran ne a akai oscillation a kusa da ka located maki. Su adana wasu short-range domin, amma babu dogon zango. Wannan shi ne saboda cewa su kwayoyin aka shirya a nesa da cewa za a iya kwatanta ta da su size. The fi na kowa a cikin rayuwarmu misali na wannan shi ne mai ɗamfarar idon yayi kamar gilashi jihar. Amorphous kayan sukan daukarsa a matsayin wani ruwa tare da wani izuwa manyan danko. A lokacin crystallization ne wani lokacin don haka babban abin da ba a nuna.

Cewa sama da kaddarorin daga cikin wadannan abubuwa su na musamman. Amorphous daskararru dauke m, kamar yadda a ƙarshe zai iya zuwa wani crystalline jihar.

Kwayoyin, kwayoyin zarra, na wanda qunshi wani m cushe da high yawa. Sun kusan kula da su zumunta matsayi game da wasu barbashi kuma an gudanar tare da intermolecular hulda. A nisa tsakanin kwayoyin da m in daban-daban kwatance da ake kira crystal raga siga. A tsarin da abu da kuma ta fasali ayyana wani jam'i na Properties kamar electron band, tsakiyan nonon da kimiyyan gani da hasken wuta. Lokacin da fallasa su m isasshe manyan sojojin, wadannan halaye na iya zama fiye ko žasa da keta. Lokacin da wannan m amenable saura nakasawa.

Sunadaran m gawarwakin oscillate, wanda shi ne saboda mallaki thermal makamashi. Tun da su ne negligible, za su iya kawai za a lura a karkashin awon yanayi. A kwayoyin tsarin da daskararru sun fi mayar da shafi da kaddarorin.

A binciken da na daskararru

Kadarorin Properties na wadannan kayan, su inganci da barbashi motsi karatu daban-daban subsections na m jihar kimiyyar lissafi.

Domin nazarin amfani: rediyo spectroscopy, tsarin bincike ta amfani da X-haskoki da kuma wasu hanyoyin. Saboda haka karatu inji, ta jiki da kuma thermal Properties na daskararru. A taurin, danniya da juriya, tensile ƙarfi, lokaci canji karatu Materials. Yana fi mayar overlaps da kimiyyar lissafi na daskararru. Akwai wani muhimmanci kimiyyar zamani. Don karatu data kasance da rairaya sabon abubuwa da aka gudanar m jihar sunadarai.

Features daskararru

Character motsi waje electron m kwayoyin halitta kayyade yawa na da kaddarorin, misali, electrically. Akwai 5 azuzuwan na wannan jikin. Suna kafa dangane da irin sunadaran:

• Ionic, asali halayyar wanda yake da karfi na electrostatic janye. Its fasali: tunani da kuma sha daga haske a cikin infrared yankin. A low zafin jiki, da ionic bond ne halin da low lantarki watsin. Wani misali na irin wannan abu ne sodium gishiri na hydrochloric acid (NaCl).
• Covalent da za'ayi a kudi na wani electron biyu, wanda nasa ne duka biyu kwayoyin halitta. Irin wannan mahada ne zuwa kashi: guda (daya), biyu da kuma sau uku. Wadannan sunayen nuna gaban electron nau'i-nau'i (1, 2, 3). Biyu da sau uku shaidu ake kira, sau. Akwai wani rabo daga cikin kungiyar. Saboda haka, dangane da electron yawa rarraba ruwan dare iyakacin duniya da kuma nonpolar bond. A farko an kafa ta daban-daban kwayoyin halitta, da kuma na biyu - daidai. Irin wannan m jihar na al'amarin, misalai daga waxanda suke - a lu'u-lu'u (C) da kuma silicon (Si), halin da yawa. Mafi m lu'ulu'u ne kawai a covalent bond.
• Metal kafa ta hada da valence electrons da kwayoyin halitta. A sakamakon haka, akwai a total electron girgije wanda aka gudun hijira a ƙarƙashin rinjayar wani lantarki ƙarfin lantarki. Metal bond aka kafa a lokacin da bonding atoms dogon. Wannan su iya su ba da kyauta electrons. Mutane da yawa karafa, hadaddun mahadi wannan bond aka kafa m jihar kwayoyin halitta. Misalai: sodium, barium, aluminum, jan, zinariya. Non-ƙarfe mahadi da wadannan: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn _8. Abubuwa da karfe bonding (karafa) ne bambancin a jiki Properties. Suna iya zama ruwa (Hg), taushi da (Na, K), da wuya (W, NB).
• Kwayoyin tasowa a lu'ulu'u da cewa an kafa raba kwayoyin halitta. An halin gibba tsakanin kwayoyin da sifili electron yawa. Force haxe kwayoyin halitta a cikin wadannan lu'ulu'u ne babba. A daidai wannan kwayoyin da suka suna janyo hankalin zuwa juna kawai rauni intermolecular janye. Wannan shi ne dalilin da ya sa links tsakanin su suna sauƙin halaka su da zafin rana. A sadarwa tsakanin kwayoyin halitta durkushe fiye da wuya. Kwayoyin bond ne zuwa kashi fuskantarwa, watsawa da kuma shigar da. Wani misali na irin wannan m abu ne methane.
• Hydrogen, wanda ya auku tsakanin gaskiya ma polarized kwayoyin halitta ko kwayoyin gare su, kuma barnatar da polarized karami barbashi na wani kwayoyin ko wasu sassa. Wadannan dangantakar za a iya dangana kankara.

Kadarorin daskararru

Abin da muka sani a yau? Masana kimiyya sun dade da aka karatu da kaddarorin m jihar abubuwa. Lokacin da fallasa su da yanayin zafi da kuma canza shi. A miƙa mulki na jiki ruwa da aka kira narkewa. Da canji na m ga gaseous jihar da aka kira sublimation. Tare da ragewa da zazzabi auku M crystallization. Wasu abubuwa a ƙarƙashin rinjayar da sanyi canjawa wuri zuwa amorphous lokaci. Wannan tsari shine ake kira vitrification masana kimiyya.

A lokaci mi musanya ciki tsarin daskararru. A mafi ordering da ta samu yana da yawan zafin jiki da aka saukar da. A yanayi matsa lamba da kuma zazzabi T> 0 K wani abu data kasance a cikin yanayi, solidify. Kawai helium, da crystallization na wanda wajibi ne a matsa lamba na 24 ATM, shi ne wani togiya ga wannan mulkin.

M jihar ba shi da wani daban-daban jiki Properties. Sun bayyana takamaiman hali na jikuna a ƙarƙashin rinjayar wasu filayen da kuma sojojin. Wadannan Properties kasu kashi kungiyoyin. 3 ware daukan hotuna Hanyar m zuwa iri uku da makamashi (inji, thermal, electromagnetic). Haka suka zama uku kungiyoyin na jiki Properties na daskararru:

• Inji Properties alaka danniya da kuma nakasawa daga jikinsu. A cewar wadannan sharudda, da daskararru kasu kashi na roba, rheological, karfin da fasaha. Sauran ne cikin jiki rike da siffar, amma shi za a iya canza ta da wani waje da karfi. A wannan yanayin yana iya zama na roba nakasawa (na farko view ba koma), na roba (ya koma ga ainihin siffar) ko hallakaswa (a lokacin da wani dokin ya ƙãrẽwa / hutu). Bitar wadannan kokari bayyana na roba moduli. M ba kawai ya sãɓa matsawa, mikewa, amma kuma canjawa, dõmin karkatarwa da lankwasawa. m jiki ƙarfi ga tsayayya da kira wa dukiyarsa hallaka.
• Thermal bayyana a ƙarƙashin rinjayar thermal filayen. Daya daga cikin mafi muhimmanci Properties - narkewa batu, a da jiki sabobin tuba zuwa wani ruwa jihar. An lura a crystalline daskararru. Amorphous gawarwakin mallaka latent zafi na Fusion, kamar yadda su mika mulki ga ruwa a jihar a lokacin da zafin jiki ne tãyar da hankali. Bayan kai a wasu zafi amorphous jiki hasarar da elasticity da kuma zama plasticity. Wannan jiha nufin cimma su gilashin mika mulki zazzabi. Lokacin da dumama faruwa m jiki nakasawa. Haka kuma, shi sau da yawa yana faɗaɗa. Quantitatively, wannan yanayin halin da wasu factor. Jikin da zazzabi rinjayar da inji Properties kamar flowability, plasticity, ƙarfi kuma ƙarfi.
• Electromagnetic hade tare da daukan hotuna zuwa m microparticles gudana da kuma electromagnetic taguwar ruwa na high rigidity. Wadannan sun hada da fitina da kuma radiative Properties.

band tsarin

A daskararru aka classified da kuma abin da ake kira band tsarin. Saboda haka, daga cikinsu akwai fitaccen:

• Conductors, halin a cewa watsin da valence makada zoba. Kamar wancan ne da electrons iya matsawa tsakanin su, samar da gwaggwabar riba da karami makamashi. Domin conductors ne duk karafa. Lokacin da lantarki da aka kafa don irin wannan m bambanci jiki (saboda da free motsi electrons tsakanin maki da mafi ƙasƙanci da babban m).
• Dielectrics, wanda yankunan ba zoba. A tazara tsakanin su ne mafi girma daga 4 maddî. Don gudanar da electrons daga valence to bukatar manyan makamashi na madugu band. Godiya ga wadannan kaddarorin dielectrics kusan ba conductive.
• Semiconductors, halin da rashi na madugu kuma valence makada. A tazara tsakanin su ne karami fiye da 4 maddî. Domin canja wuri da electrons daga valence ga madugu band bukatar ƙasa da makamashi fiye da dielectrics. Pure (unalloyed da eigenfunctions) semiconductors talauci halin yanzu an shige.

Kwayoyin motsi a cikin daskararru sa su electromagnetic Properties.

sauran kaddarorin

Daskararru rarrabu kuma su Magnetic Properties. Akwai uku kungiyoyin:

• Diamagnetic Properties wanda ya dogara kadan a kan zafin jiki ko jiha na tari.
• Paramagnetic, sakamakon daga fuskantarwa na madugu electrons da Magnetic lokacin da sunadaran. A cewar Curie su laulayi rage-rage kamar yadda zazzabi. Saboda haka, a 300 K shi ne 10 ^-5.
• A Magnetic jiki tare da wani umurni da tsarin da ciwon dogon zango domin na kwayoyin halitta. A cikin nodes na raga ana lokaci zuwa lokaci shirya barbashi tare da Magnetic lokacin. Wadannan daskararru da kuma abubuwa da ake yawan amfani a cikin daban-daban duniyoyin na mutum aiki.

A mafi wuya abu a cikin yanayi

Abin da suke? daskararru yawa sun fi mayar da sanin su daga bãyan wancan. A cikin 'yan shekaru, masana kimiyya sun gano dama kayan cewa da'awar su zama "mafi m jiki." Mafi m - shi fullerite (crystal kwayoyin da fullerene), wanda shi ne game da 1.5 sau fiye da wuya lu'u-lu'u. Abin takaici, shi ne a halin yanzu samuwa ne kawai a sosai kananan yawa.

Don kwanan wata, da mafi wuya abu, wanda daga baya za a iya amfani a cikin masana'antun - lonsdalite (kyakkyawan lu'u-lu'u). Shi ne 58% fiye da wuya lu'u-lu'u. Lonsdalite - allotropic gyara na carbon. Its crystal raga ya yi kama da wani lu'u-lu'u. Lonsdaleite cell ƙunshi 4 kwayoyin halitta, amma da lu'u-lu'u - 8. Daga cikin saba amfani lu'ulu'u a yau ne mafi wuya lu'u-lu'u.