Tarihi na raya ci gaban Biology. A ci gaba na zamani da ilmin halitta da

Daga farkon zamanin rayuwa, da yaro ya nẽmi fahimta duniya kewaye da su. Da mazan ya samun, da mafi ban sha'awa da kuma fun shi ya zama gaskiya. The duniya da aka canza tare da shi. Kuma dukkan bil'adama ba tsaya har yanzu a ci gaba. Duk da sabon binciken sun kama. Gaskiyar cewa jiya ya gagara, a yau ya zama wani al'amari na talakawa. An babban taimako ga zamani kimiyya da fasaha ci gaba da yin kimiyya da ilmin halitta. Yana da karatunsa duk al'amurran rayuwa, duba da matakai na asalin da kuma ci gaba na rayayyun kwayoyin halitta. Abin lura shi ne cewa a raba reshe na wannan kimiyya da aka kasaftawa kawai a cikin XIX karni, ko da yake da ilmi na duniya mutãne da aka tara cikin sabon ci gaba. Tarihi na raya ci gaban ilmin halitta ne mai ban sha'awa da kuma nishadi. Mutane da yawa na iya tambayar: me ya sa muke bukatar mu koyi wannan kimiyya? Zai ze, ko shi da hannu masana kimiyya. Ta yaya za wannan horo da kowa mutum? Amma ba tare da wani asali sanin mutum Physiology da kuma ilmin jikin mutum ba zai yiwu, misali, warke daga ko da na kowa sanyi. Wannan kimiyya ne iya ba da amsoshin mafi wuya tambayoyi. Babban abu da za su iya zubar da haske ilmin halitta - da ci gaba da rayuwa a duniya.

Kimiyya a zamanin da

Modern ilmin halitta na da saiwoyinsa a tsufa. An inextricably nasaba da ci gaban wayewar a tsufa a cikin Rum yankin. A farko binciken a cikin wannan filin sanya da irin wannan fice Figures a matsayin Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus da sauransu. The taimako na masana kimiyya da ci gaban ilmin halitta ne invaluable. Bari mu more daki-daki a kan kowane daga cikinsu. A zamanin d Girkanci likita Hippocrates (460 -... ca. 370 BC) ya ba na farko cikakken bayanin irin tsarin da jikin mutum da dabbobi. Ya yi ishãra zuwa yadda muhalli dalilai da kuma gadar hali iya tasiri cikin ci gaban da wasu cututtuka. Modern malamai sun yi kira da kafa da Hippocratic magani. Fice Greek zurfin tunani da kuma Falsafa Aristotle (.. 384-322 BC) ta raba duniya zuwa hudu mulkokin: duniya na mutane da dabbobi, da duniya na shuke-shuke, matattun duniya (duniya), da duniya na ruwa da kuma iska. Ya yi mai yawa kwatancin dabbobi, haka wajen qaddamar da taxonomy. Hannunsa yana hudu nazarin halittu rubutun, wanda ya ƙunshi dukan san bayanai a lokacin da dabbobi. A wannan yanayin, da masanin kimiyyar ya ba kawai wani waje bayanin irin wakilan mulkin, amma kuma tunanin game da asalin da kuma yaduwa. Ya farko aka bayyana a cikin live haihuwa a sharks da kuma gaban musamman masticatory tsarin a teku urchins, ya kira yau "Aristotelian fitila." Modern malamai sun yaba da nasarorin da tsoho zurfin tunani da kuma imani da cewa Aristotle ne kafa ilmin dabbobi. A zamanin d Girkanci Falsafa Theophrastus (370-ca. 280 BC. E.) nazari duniya na shuke-shuke. Ya bayyana fiye da 500 wakilan mulkin. Shi ya buga da yawa Botanical sharuddan kamar " 'ya'yan itace", "pericarp", "core", da sauransu. Theophrastus, masana kimiyya dauke kafa na zamani o.

Har ila yau daraja ambata da ayyukansu a cikin ci gaban ilmin halitta Roman malamai kamar Guy Pliniy Starshy (22-79 shekaru.) Kuma Klavdiy Galen (131 shekara - 200). Halittu Pliniy Starshy rubuta wani kundin sani, mai taken "Natural History", wanda dauke da duk aka sani a lokacin bayanai game da rayayyun kwayoyin halitta. Up har tsakiyar zamanai, aikinsa kunshi 37 kundin, ne kawai m tushen ilimi game da yanayi. Shahararren likita, likita da kuma Falsafa da ya lokaci, Klavdiy Galen, sanya wani babban taimako ga ra'ayi da kuma ci gaban kimiyyar kamar Anatomy, pharmacology, Physiology, ilimin tsarin jijiyoyi da sauransu. A cikin nazarin, ya sanya m amfani da autopsy dabbobi masu shayarwa. Ya farko da aka bayyana, kuma idan aka kwatanta da tankwara mutane da birai. Its main nufi ya yi nazarin tsakiya da kuma na gefe m tsarin. A fitarwa na da ayyuka ga abokan aiki da cewa aikinsa a kan ilmin jikin mutum bisa autopsy da aladu da kuma birai amfani har 1543, har ya bayyana a cikin aikin na Andreas Vesalius 'a cikin tsarin da jikin mutum. " Dalibai na kiwon lafiya cibiyoyin nazarin ayyukan Galen da XIX karni. Ka'idarsa ne cewa ta wajen juyayi tsarin na kwakwalwa controls motsi, shi ne har yanzu dacewa a yau. Better fahimci yadda fitowan da kuma nazari na wannan kimiyya a cikin tarihi, mun taimaka tebur "Development of ilmin halitta." A nan ne ta babban kafa.

na da magani

The taimako na masana kimiyya da ci gaban ilmin halitta a cikin wadannan lokuta shi ne babbar. Ilimi na zamanin d Girkanci da kuma Roman Figures kunshe a ya yi yawa likitoci na tsakiyar zamanai. Wannan magani yayin da mafi yawan raya. A mahimmin juzu'in da ƙasa na Roman Empire a lokacin nasara da Larabawa. Saboda haka, ayyukan Aristotle da kuma wasu tsoho malamai sun kai mu a cikin fassarar a cikin Larabci. A zamanin da aka alama ta wannan cikin sharuddan raya ci gaban ilmin halitta? Wannan shi ne abin da ake kira zinariya shekaru na Musulunci. Shi ne ya kamata a lura da waɗannan ayyukansu kimiyya a matsayin Al-Jahiz, wanda sa'an nan a karo na farko ya bayyana ra'ayi game da abinci sarkar da kuma juyin halitta. Shi ne wanda ya kafa Gwargwadon kaddara - da kimiyya na da tasirin da na muhalli da yanayi a kan samuwar kasa harafin da kuma ruhu. A Kurdish marubuci Ahmad ibn al-Dawood Dinavari ya yi yawa ga ci gaban da Larabci o. Ya sanya bayanin fiye da 637 jinsuna daban na shuke-shuke. Na da babban amfani ga duniya da Flora ne Trend in magani da magani ganye. Greater Heights kai a magani likita daga Farisa - Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya al-Razi. Ya sa'an nan gwaje karyata mulki ka'idar Galen ta "hudu muhimmanci juices." Fice Persian likita Avicenna Ya halitta daya daga cikin mafi muhimmanci da littattafai a kan magani a karkashin sunan "Canon of Medicine", wani littafi na Turai da masana kimiyya, har XVII karni. Dole mu yarda da cewa a lokacin tsakiyar zamanai 'yan masana kimiyya sun samu daraja. Da shi shi ne zamanin da inganci tauhidin da kuma falsafa. Kimiyya magani ya sa'an nan a ƙi. Wannan halin da ake ciki da aka lura har farkon Renaissance. Bugu da ari matakai na raya ci gaban ilmin halitta za a aka bayyana a cikin wannan lokaci lokaci.

Biology a cikin Renaissance

A XVI karni, sha'awa a cikin Physiology da na halitta tarihi tsananta a Turai. Anatomists aikata dissection na jikin mutane bayan mutuwa. A 1543 ya wallafa wani littafi da ake kira Vesalius 'A tsarin da jikin mutum. " Tarihi na raya ci gaban ilmin halitta yana yin wani sabon zagaye. magani na ganye sun kowa a magani. Wannan zai iya ba amma zai shafi girma sha'awa cikin duniya Flora. Fuchs da Otto Brunfels a cikin rubuce-rubucen sa harsashin ga manyan-sikelin shuke-shuke da aka bayyana. Ko artists na lokacin da aka sha'awar a cikin tsarin da gawawwakin dabbobi da mutane. Su fentin da hotuna, aiki gefe da gefe da naturalists. Leonardo Vinci da Albrecht Dürer a aiwatar da samar da Masterpieces kokarin samun wani cikakken bayanin da tankwara rayuwa a jikinsu. A farko daga cikin wadannan, ta hanyar, sau da yawa kallon jirgin tsuntsaye, gaya masu yawa da shuke-shuke, shared bayani a kan tsarin da jikin mutum. Babu kasa gagarumin taimako ga kimiyya da cewa zamanin yi da kuma irin yadda masana kimiyya alchemists, encyclopedic, likitoci. Wani misali na wannan ne ayyukan Paracelsus. Saboda haka, ya bayyana sarai cewa ilmin halitta ci gaban da aka musamman m, a pre-Darwin lokaci.

XVII karni

A mafi muhimmanci binciken wannan lokaci - wannan shi ne karo na biyu da bude daga cikin huhu wurare dabam dabam, wanda ya ba da sabon impetus ga ci gaban ilmin jikin mutum da kuma bayyanar da rukunan kwayoyin. Sa'an nan na farko microbiological nazarin da aka yi. A karo na farko shi ne mai bayanin shuka Kwayoyin, wanda za a iya dauke ne kawai a karkashin wani hange. Wannan na'ura, ta hanyar, da aka kirkiro by John Lippersgeem da Zahariem Yansenom a 1590 a Holland. The na'urar da aka yaushe inganta. Kuma nan da nan gwani Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, yana sha'awar microscopes, sun iya ganin kuma zane da ja da maikacin jini, mutum maniyyi, kazalika da yawan sosai kananan halittu (kwayoyin cuta, ciliates, kuma haka a). Development of ilmin halitta a matsayin kimiyya a wannan lokaci ke zuwa dukan sabon matakin. Mafi yawan da aka yi a filin wasa na Physiology da kuma ilmin jikin mutum. A likita daga Ingila, Uilyam Garvey, ya bayyana dabba da hali da bincike tare da jini wurare dabam dabam, ya sanya da dama da muhimmanci binciken: A venous bawuloli, rufi tabbatar da dama da kuma hagu ventricles na zuciya. Ya taimako ga ci gaban ilmin halitta da wuya a overestimate. Ya bude da na huhu wurare dabam dabam. A masanin kimiyya daga Italiya, Francesco Redi, ya tabbatar da rashin yiwuwar maras wata-wata ƙarni na kwari daga saurã daga rududdugaggu nama.

Tarihi na raya ci gaban ilmin halitta a cikin XVIII karni

Next, wani mutum na ilimi a cikin kimiyyar yanayin halitta kumbura. A mafi muhimmanci abubuwan da suka faru na XVIII karni fara bazawa na ayyukan Karla Linneya ( "System of Nature") da kuma Georges Buffon ( "Universal da kuma masu zaman kansu na halitta tarihi"). Mun gudanar da yawa gwaje-gwajen a yankin na ci gaba da shuke-shuke da dabbobi Embryology. Binciken an yi ta da irin wannan malamansu kamar Caspar Fridrih Volf, wanda a kan tushen da lura nuna wani cigaba da tayi na wani m rudiment, kuma Albrecht von Haller. Tare da wadannan sunayen suna da nasaba da mafi muhimmanci, saukarwa a cikin ci gaban ilmin halitta da kuma embryology a cikin XVIII karni. An, duk da haka, ya gane cewa data masana kimiyya sun bayar da shawarwari daban-daban hanyoyin nazarin kimiyya: Wolf - epigenetic ideas (ci gaba da kwayoyin a cikin toho), da kuma Haller - preformation Concepts (gaban a jam sel na musamman kayan Tsarin cewa predetermine da ci gaban da tayi).

Kimiyya a cikin XIX karni

Yana da daraja ambata cewa ci gaban ilmin halitta a matsayin kimiyya fara kawai a cikin XIX karni. Maganar riga aka yi amfani da masana kimiyya kafin. Duk da haka, ma'anar shi ne gaba daya daban-daban. Alal misali, Karl Linney kira ilmin halitta mutane yin tarihin rayuwa da botanists. Amma daga baya da kalmar zo da za a kira da kimiyya da karatu duk rayayyun kwayoyin halitta. Irin wannan batutuwa a matsayin ci gaban da pre-Darwin ilmin halitta, a cikin tsawon, mun riga shãfe a kan. A farkon karni XIX ya fitowan da wani kimiyya binciken burbushin halittu. Binciken a cikin wannan filin suna da alaka da sunan mafi girma masanin kimiyya - Charles Darwin, wanda a karo na biyu da rabi na karni, ta buga wani littafi mai taken "The Origin of Species." Don ƙarin bayani game da aikin, za mu magance a babi na gaba. Ana zargin cell ka'idar, da samuwar phylogenetics, ci gaban microscopic Anatomy da kuma cytology, da samuwar rukunan da ya faru na cututtuka da infecting takamaiman pathogen, da kuma fiye da - duk hade da cin gaban kimiyya a cikin XIX karni.

Works of Charles Darwin

Littafin farko na Littafi mafi girma masanin kimiyya - wani "halittu Travel duniya da jirgin." Bugu da ari, abu na nazarin Darwin ya zama barnacles. Wannan ya sa a cikin rubuce-rubuce da kuma bazawa na hudu-girma aiki a kan Physiology na wadannan dabbobi. Wannan aikinsa Dabbobi ne har yanzu. Duk da haka, babban aikin da Charles Darwin - a littafin "The Origin of Species", wanda ya fara rubuta a 1837. A littafin da aka supplemented da kuma sake buga shi sau da dama. Yana daki-daki da breeds na dabbobin gida da kuma shuka iri, ya gabatar da ra'ayoyi a kan zabin yanayi. Evolutionary raya ci gaban ilmin halitta a cikin ra'ayi na Darwin - ne canzawa daga jinsuna da kuma irin ƙarƙashin rinjayar gadar hali da kuma na waje muhalli dalilai, kazalika da na halitta asalin daga baya jinsunan. The masanin kimiyya zo ga ƙarshe cewar duk wata shuka ko dabba a cikin yanayi o ƙarin ninka dabam dabam. Duk da haka, yawan mutane da wannan nau'in da ya rage m. Wannan yana nufin cewa yanayin da mataki da dokar na rayuwa. Strong kwayoyin tsira da sayen ãyõyi, da amfani ga duk irin, sa'an nan riɓaɓɓanya, da kuma rauni - aka kashe a cikin maƙiya yanayin. Wannan ake kira yanayin (na halitta) selection. Alal misali, mace cod samar da har zuwa miliyan bakwai qwai. Yana tsira kawai 2% na jimlar yawan. Amma muhalli da yanayi na iya canza. Sa'an nan tabbatar da amfani a sosai daban-daban na ãyõyi. A sakamakon haka, shugabanci na zabin yanayi canje-canje. External alamun mutane za su iya canza. Akwai wani sabon look, wanda yayin da rike m dalilai da aka zaunar. Daga baya, a cikin 1868, Charles Darwin wallafa na biyu aikin juyin shugabanci da ake kira "Change dabbobi da shuke-shuke a karkashin domestication." Duk da haka, bai wa aikin ba yadu a gane. Yana da daraja a ambaci wani aiki mai muhimmanci na babban masanin kimiyya - littafin "The Descent of Man da kuma jima'i selection". A da shi ya ba mai yawa muhawara a cikin ni'imar da cewa mutum ya samu daga kama da gwaggwon biri kakanninsu.

Menene za a karni XX?

Mutane da yawa duniya binciken a kimiyya da aka yi daidai a cikin karni na karshe. A wannan lokaci, ci gaban mutum ilmin halitta na samar da wani sabon matakin. Wannan shi ne zamanin da itatuwa aure. By 1920, ya kafa chromosomal ka'idar gadar hali. Kuma bayan yakin duniya na biyu, cikin sauri suka fara samar ilmin sanin kwayoyin halittu. Canza yayi a ci gaba da ilmin halitta.

jinsi

A cikin shekara ta 1900, haka su yi magana, sake gano Mendel da dokokin da irin wannan malamansu kamar De Vries da sauransu. Ewa, wannan da aka bi ta bude cytology cewa kwayoyin abu na cell Tsarin dauke a cikin chromosomes. A 1910-1915, Working Group masanin kimiyya Thomas Hunt Morgan, dangane da gwaje-gwajen da 'ya'yan gardama (Drosophila) ya ci gaba da ake kira "Mendelian chromosome ka'idar gadar hali." Ilmin halitta sun gano cewa, da genes a chromosomes aka shirya linearly a wani "beads a kan wani kirtani." De Vries - na farko masanin kimiyya wanda Ya sanya wani zato game da gene maye gurbi. Bugu da ari, shi da aka bai wa manufar kayyade gantali. Kuma a cikin 1980, an American gwaji likita Luis Alvarez samarwa meteorite jarrabawa nau'i nau'i na dinosaur.

Fitowan da kuma ci gaban Biochemistry

Ko da more fice binciken da aka jiran masana kimiyya a nan gaba. A farkon karni XX fara aiki da bincike bitamin. Dan kadan a baya ya bude hanya poisons da kwayoyi, sunadarai, kuma m acid. A cikin shekaru 1920-1930 cikin masana kimiyya Carl da Gerty Cori, da kuma Hans Krebs ya ba da bayanin carbohydrate canje. Wannan alama farkon nazarin da kira na porphyrins da steroids. A karshen karni, Fritz Lippmann sanya wadannan samu: adenosine triphosphate aka gane a matsayin duniya m na biochemical makamashi a cikin cell, da kuma babban ikon "tashar," shi aka kira mitochondria. Na'urorin ga dakin gwaje-gwaje gwajen ya zama mafi nagartaccen, akwai sabon hanyoyin samun ilimi, kamar electrophoresis da chromatography. Biochemistry ne daya daga cikin rassan magani, akwai a raba kimiyya.

ilmin sanin kwayoyin halittu

All sabon shafi batutuwa bayyana a cikin binciken na ilmin halitta. Masana kimiyya da dama sun yi kokarin sanin ko yanayin da gene. A gudanar da bincike don wannan dalili wani sabon lokaci "ilmin sanin kwayoyin halittu". The abu na binciken ya kan ƙwayoyin cuta da kwayoyin. bacteriophage aka zaba - mai cutar da cewa selectively rinjayar wasu sel da kwayoyin. Gwaje-gwaje da aka gudanar a ma Drosophila, wani burodi mold, masara da sauransu. Tarihi na raya ci gaban ilmin halitta ne cewa sabon binciken da aka yi tare da gabatarwar da wani sabon gaba ɗaya kayan aiki domin gudanar da bincike. Saboda haka, an nan da sannu ƙirƙira na'urar hange, kuma a high-gudun yara. Wadannan na'urori sun sa masana kimiyya bude hada da kayyade abu a cikin chromosomes ƙunshi cikin DNA, maimakon gina jiki kamar yadda a baya tunani. DNA tsarin da aka mayar da a cikin hanyar da muka sani a yau, da biyu Helix.

kwayoyin aikin injiniya

A ci gaba na zamani da ilmin halitta da ba a tsaye har yanzu. Halitta injiniya - wannan shi ne wani "byproduct" na karatu wannan horo. An wannan kimiyya, bin mu bayyanar wasu kwayoyi, kamar insulin da threonine. Duk da cewa shi ne a halin yanzu a mataki na ci gaba da kuma koyo a nan gaba, za mu iya riga ya zama iya "dandano" amfanin. Wannan sabon alluran da mafi hatsari cututtuka, da kuma irin horar da tsire-tsire ba wahala daga fari, sanyi, cututtuka, kwari ayyuka. Masana kimiyya da dama imani da cewa yin amfani da nasarorin da wannan kimiyya, za mu iya manta game da yin amfani da cutarwa da magungunan kashe qwari da kuma herbicides. Duk da haka, ci gaban wannan horo sa zamani al'umma gauraye kima. Mutane da yawa tsõron ne ba tare da dalili da cewa binciken da sakamakon na iya zama zargin resistant maganin rigakafi da sauran kwayoyi da jamiái na hatsari cututtuka a mutane da dabbobi.

The latest binciken a ilmin halitta da kuma magani

Kimiyya ci gaba da fitowa. Har yanzu da yawa daga asirai jiran mu masana kimiyya a nan gaba. A makaranta yau karatu a takaice dai tarihi na ci gaban ilmin halitta. A darasi na farko a kan batun da muke da a cikin 6th sa. Bari mu ga abin da mu yara za su koya a nan gaba. Ga jerin binciken da suka gudanar ya yi a cikin sabon karni.

1. Aikin "Human genome". Aiki a kan shi ya za'ayi a shekara ta 1990. A wannan lokaci, da Amurka Congress babba adadin kudi an ware domin gudanar da bincike. 2 dozin genes an deciphered a 1999 shekara. A 2001, ya aka yi da farko "daftarin" na mutum genome. A 2006, aikin da aka kammala.
2. } Ananan magungunan - magani da musamman microdevices.
3. The hanyoyin "girma" mutum gabobin (hanta nama, gashi, zuciya bawuloli, tsoka Kwayoyin da haka a).
4. Halittar wucin gadi mutum gabobin, wanda halaye ba zai haifar da da na halitta (roba tsokoki da sauransu).

A lokacin da mafi daki-daki ne nazarin tarihi na nazarin halittun - 10th sa. A wannan mataki, dalibai sami ilimi a Biochemistry, cytology, haifuwa kwayoyin. Wannan bayani zai iya zama da amfani a dalibai a nan gaba.

Mun sake nazari da lokaci na ci gaban ilmin halitta a matsayin mai raba kimiyya, amma kuma saukar da manyan shugabanci.